Approach to Discourse

iva dlurrotun nihayah
2201409009
401-402

           In this chapter there are several approaches to discourse analysis based on the seventh-meeting material available. First approach is speech act theory. This approach is developed by Austin (1955) and Searle (1969). The basic unit of analysis is speech act (SA) or illocutionary force (IF). From the basic belief that language is used to perform action, Austin and Searle state that the basic unit conversational analysis must be functionally motivated rather than formally design one. The systemic name of this approach is Speech function (SF), the central issue in discourse structure.
            The second approach is Interactional Sociolinguistics and developed by Gumperz (1982) and Goffman (1959-1981). It is concerned with the interpretation of discourse and importance of context in production. The unit of analysis is grammatical and prosodic features in interaction. In other side, Schiffrin (1987) is focusing on quantitative interactive sociolinguistics analysis, especially discourse markers. His basic concern is on the accomplishment of conversational coherence and the unit’s analysis is turn.
            the third is Ethnography of communication. It is developed by Dell Hymes (1972b, 1974). It concerns with understanding the social context of linguistics interaction: ’who says what to whom’, when, where, why, and how. The prime unit of analysis is speech event which has some components. The analysis of the speech units’ components then we called ethnography of communication or ethnography of speaking. Then the ethnography framework has led to broader notion of communicative competence.

Systemic Functional Linguistic

Applied Linguistic ( meeting 8 assignment)
iva dlurrotun nihayah
2201409009
401-402

Systemic-Functional, is functional and semantic rather than formal and syntactic in orientation, takes the text rather than the sentence as its object, and defines its scope by reference to usage rather than grammaticality. The name "systemic" derives from the term SYSTEM, the theoretical representation of paradigmatic relations, contrasted with STRUCTURE for syntagmatic relations.

Systemic-Functional Linguistics (SFL) is a theory of language centred around the notion of language function. SFL starts at social context, and looks at how language both acts upon, and is constrained by, this social context. Systemic semantics includes what is usually called 'pragmatics'. Semantics is divided into three components. They are ideational Semantics (the propositional content), Interpersonal Semantics (concerned with speech-function, exchange structure, expression of attitude, etc.) and Textual Semantics (how the text is structured as a message, e.g., theme-structure, given/new, rhetorical structure etc.

The focus of systemic functional Liguistic  is not on texts as decontextualized structural entities in their own right but rather on the mutually predictive relationships between texts and the social practices they realize.
Semantics is the interface between language and context of situation (register). Semantics is therefore concerned with the meanings that are involved with the three situational variables Field, Tenor and Mode. Ideational meanings realize Field, interpersonal meanings realise Tenor and textual meanings realize Mode. Interpersonal meanings are realised lexicogrammatically by systems of Mood and Modality and by the selection of attitudinal lexis.

The Mood system is the central resource establishing and maintaining an ongoing exchange between interactants by assuming and assigning speech roles such as giving or demanding goods and services or information. Modality is the resource concerned with the domain of the negotiation of the proposition or proposal between the categorical extremes of positive or negative. The negotiation may be in terms of probability, usuality, obligation or inclination. Lexicogrammatically textual meanings are realised by systems of Theme and Information. Theme selections establish the orientation or angle on the interpersonal and ideational concerns of the clause whereas Information organises the informational status or relative newsworthiness of these concerns.

discourse analysis

iva dlurrotun nihayah
2201409009
401-402

Stubb argues in his book (1983:1), that discourse analysis as analysis of language use beyond the sentences, concern with the interrelationship between language and society, and dialogic properties of everyday communication.
Text analysis and discourse analysis are two different things. In the text analysis, it needs linguistics analysis, and the interpretation is based on the linguistic evidence. In other side, discourse analysis study the text-forming devices with reference to the purpose and function for which the discourse was produce. It relates to contexts of situation, culture, and social. The goal of discourse is to show how the linguistics elements enable language users to communicate. In other words it tells us about happenings, what people thinks, belief, how text represents ideology, etc.
            Discourse analysis is defined as the study of how stretches of language used in communication assume meaning, purpose and unity for their users (coherence). Coherence itself is an interaction of text with given participant based on the context (participants’ knowledge, perception of paralanguage, other texts, the situation, the culture, the world in general and the role, intentions and relationships of participants.
There are some approaches to Discourse Analysis: speech act theory (interpretation), interactional sociolinguistics, ethnography of communication, pragmatics, conversational analysis, variation analysis, and structural functional approaches.

Third Assignment of Applied Linguistic

Iva Dlurrotun Nihayah
2201409009
401-102
Third Assignment of Topics in Applied Linguistic

Summary of Communicative Competence
           The main key in this case are the words performance and competence. The term ‘performance’ and ‘competence’ are used differently by the research, so that why Chomsky (1965) had differed those two terms. According to Chomsky (1965), the term ‘competence’ refers to the linguistics system (grammar) that an ideal native speaker of a given language has internalized whereas ‘performance’ mainly concerns the psychological factors that are involved in the perception and production of speech. Given this perspective, theory of competence is equivalent to the theory of grammar or language rule that can generate and describe the grammatical sentence of a language. In other hand, theory of performance focuses on the acceptability of sentence in perception and speech production.
           in other words, communicative competence can be defined as a knowledge that enables someone that enables someone to use that knowledge communicatively. Some researchers had been defining the term communicative competence, Munby (1978) assumed that communicative competence should focus minimally on the relationship and interaction between regularities in grammatical competence and regularities in sociolinguistic competence. It can be assumed that the rule of language will be useless if there is no grammar rule “not only knowing the grammatical rules of language, but also what to say to whom in what circumstances and how to say it, example: the rule when we greet the younger will be different with the rule when we greet the elder.
                There are some guiding principles for communicative competence in second language teaching. The first, communicative competence is composed minimally of grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, and communicative strategies. A communication approach must be based on and respond to the learner’s need. The second language must have the opportunity to take part in meaningful communicative interaction with highly competent speaker of the language. It is particularly at the early stages of learning (young age). The primary objective of a communication-oriented second language program must be to provide the learners with the information, practice, and much of the experience needed to meet their communicative needs in second language.

Second Assignment of Applied Linguistic

Iva Dlurrotun Nihayah
2201409009
401-102
Third Assignment of Topics in Applied Linguistic

Summary of Communicative Competence
           The main key in this case are the words performance and competence. The term ‘performance’ and ‘competence’ are used differently by the research, so that why Chomsky (1965) had differed those two terms. According to Chomsky (1965), the term ‘competence’ refers to the linguistics system (grammar) that an ideal native speaker of a given language has internalized whereas ‘performance’ mainly concerns the psychological factors that are involved in the perception and production of speech. Given this perspective, theory of competence is equivalent to the theory of grammar or language rule that can generate and describe the grammatical sentence of a language. In other hand, theory of performance focuses on the acceptability of sentence in perception and speech production.
           in other words, communicative competence can be defined as a knowledge that enables someone that enables someone to use that knowledge communicatively. Some researchers had been defining the term communicative competence, Munby (1978) assumed that communicative competence should focus minimally on the relationship and interaction between regularities in grammatical competence and regularities in sociolinguistic competence. It can be assumed that the rule of language will be useless if there is no grammar rule “not only knowing the grammatical rules of language, but also what to say to whom in what circumstances and how to say it, example: the rule when we greet the younger will be different with the rule when we greet the elder.
                There are some guiding principles for communicative competence in second language teaching. The first, communicative competence is composed minimally of grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, and communicative strategies. A communication approach must be based on and respond to the learner’s need. The second language must have the opportunity to take part in meaningful communicative interaction with highly competent speaker of the language. It is particularly at the early stages of learning (young age). The primary objective of a communication-oriented second language program must be to provide the learners with the information, practice, and much of the experience needed to meet their communicative needs in second language.

First Assignment of Applied Linguistic

Iva Durrotun Nihayah
2201409009
401-102
First Assignment of Applied Linguistic

The Definition of Applied Linguistic

1.    Applied linguistics is an umbrella term that covers a wide set of numerous areas of study connected by the focus on the language that is actually used. The emphasis in applied linguistics is on language users and the ways in which they use languages, contrary to theoretical linguistics which studies the language in the abstract not referring it to any particular context, or language, like Chomskyan generative grammar for example.
( Kamil Wisniewski aug 29th,2007 download from http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd on march 2012

       
2.    Applied Linguistics (AL) provides the theoretical and descriptive foundations for the investigation and solution of language-related problems, especially those of language education (first-language, second-language and foreign-language teaching and learning), but also problems of translation and interpretation, lexicography, forensic linguistics and (perhaps) clinical linguistics.’ (Dick Hudson’s online survey of  BAAL British Association of Applied Linguistics members 1968) http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/ESFProject.htm

3.    Applied Linguistics itself may be seen as an autonomous, problem-solving disciple, concerned broadly with language (mainly, but not exclusively second language) education and language problems in society’ (Steve McDonough, 2002) http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/ESFProject.htm




The Scope Applied Linguistic

1.    Language and Education/Learning : it includes :
•    First-language education : when child studied their home language
•    Additional language education ( second language and foreign language)
•    Clinical linguistic : the study of treatment of speech and communication impairments.
•    Language testing : the assesment and evaluation of language achivement and proficiency.

2.    language, Work and Law 
it includes :
•    workplace communication : the study of language is used in the workplace.
•    Language planning : the making of decission.
•    Forensic linguistic : the deployment of language evidence in crimnal and other legal investigation.

3.    Language, Information and Effect

it includes :

•    literary stylistic : the study of the relationship between linguistic choices and  effects in literature.
•    Critical discourse analysis : the study of the relationship between linguistic choices and  effects  in persuasive uses of language.
•    Translation and intepretation : formulation of principles underlying the perceive equivalence between a strecth  of language and its translation.
•    Information design : the agreement and presentation of written language.
•    Lexicography : the compelling of both  monolingual and bilingual dictionaries and also other language references.

First Assignment of Applied Linguistic