Iva Nihayah

Rabu, 11 April 2012

Third Assignment of Applied Linguistic

Iva Dlurrotun Nihayah
2201409009
401-102
Third Assignment of Topics in Applied Linguistic

Summary of Communicative Competence
           The main key in this case are the words performance and competence. The term ‘performance’ and ‘competence’ are used differently by the research, so that why Chomsky (1965) had differed those two terms. According to Chomsky (1965), the term ‘competence’ refers to the linguistics system (grammar) that an ideal native speaker of a given language has internalized whereas ‘performance’ mainly concerns the psychological factors that are involved in the perception and production of speech. Given this perspective, theory of competence is equivalent to the theory of grammar or language rule that can generate and describe the grammatical sentence of a language. In other hand, theory of performance focuses on the acceptability of sentence in perception and speech production.
           in other words, communicative competence can be defined as a knowledge that enables someone that enables someone to use that knowledge communicatively. Some researchers had been defining the term communicative competence, Munby (1978) assumed that communicative competence should focus minimally on the relationship and interaction between regularities in grammatical competence and regularities in sociolinguistic competence. It can be assumed that the rule of language will be useless if there is no grammar rule “not only knowing the grammatical rules of language, but also what to say to whom in what circumstances and how to say it, example: the rule when we greet the younger will be different with the rule when we greet the elder.
                There are some guiding principles for communicative competence in second language teaching. The first, communicative competence is composed minimally of grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, and communicative strategies. A communication approach must be based on and respond to the learner’s need. The second language must have the opportunity to take part in meaningful communicative interaction with highly competent speaker of the language. It is particularly at the early stages of learning (young age). The primary objective of a communication-oriented second language program must be to provide the learners with the information, practice, and much of the experience needed to meet their communicative needs in second language.

Second Assignment of Applied Linguistic

First Assignment of Applied Linguistic

Iva Durrotun Nihayah
2201409009
401-102
First Assignment of Applied Linguistic

The Definition of Applied Linguistic

1.    Applied linguistics is an umbrella term that covers a wide set of numerous areas of study connected by the focus on the language that is actually used. The emphasis in applied linguistics is on language users and the ways in which they use languages, contrary to theoretical linguistics which studies the language in the abstract not referring it to any particular context, or language, like Chomskyan generative grammar for example.
( Kamil Wisniewski aug 29th,2007 download from http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd on march 2012


2.    Applied Linguistics (AL) provides the theoretical and descriptive foundations for the investigation and solution of language-related problems, especially those of language education (first-language, second-language and foreign-language teaching and learning), but also problems of translation and interpretation, lexicography, forensic linguistics and (perhaps) clinical linguistics.’ (Dick Hudson’s online survey of BAAL British Association of Applied Linguistics members 1968) http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/ESFProject.htm

3.    Applied Linguistics itself may be seen as an autonomous, problem-solving disciple, concerned broadly with language (mainly, but not exclusively second language) education and language problems in society’ (Steve McDonough, 2002) http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/ESFProject.htm

The Scope Applied Linguistic

1.    Language and Education/Learning : it includes :
•    First-language education : when child studied their home language
•    Additional language education ( second language and foreign language)
•    Clinical linguistic : the study of treatment of speech and communication impairments.
•    Language testing : the assesment and evaluation of language achivement and proficiency.

2.    language, Work and Law
it includes :
•    workplace communication : the study of language is used in the workplace.
•    Language planning : the making of decission.
•    Forensic linguistic : the deployment of language evidence in crimnal and other legal investigation.

3.    Language, Information and Effect

it includes :

•    literary stylistic : the study of the relationship between linguistic choices and effects in literature.
•    Critical discourse analysis : the study of the relationship between linguistic choices and effects in persuasive uses of language.
•    Translation and intepretation : formulation of principles underlying the perceive equivalence between a strecth of language and its translation.
•    Information design : the agreement and presentation of written language.
•    Lexicography : the compelling of both monolingual and bilingual dictionaries and also other language references.

First Assignment of Applied Linguistic

Selasa, 04 Oktober 2011

The History behind The Song " Baa Baa Black Sheep

BAA, BAA BLACK SHEEP

Baa, baa black sheep

Have you any wool

Yes, sir. Yes, sir.

Three bags full:

One for my master,

One for is dame,

And one for the little boy that lives down the lane

The meaning of the Rhyme:

As with many nursery rhymes, attempts have been made to find origins and meanings for the rhyme. These include:

· A description of the medieval ‘Great’ or ‘Old Custom’ wool tax of 1275, which survived until the fifteenth century. Contrary to some commentaries, this tax did not involve the collection of one third to the king, and one third to the church, but a less punitive sum of 6s 8d to the Crown per sack, about 5 per cent of the value. This theory also depends on the rhyme surviving unrecorded and even unmentioned in extant texts for hundreds of years.

· A connection to the slave trade. This explanation was advances during debates over political correctness and the use and the reform of nursery rhymes in the 1980s, but scholars agree that it has no basic in fact.

Traditionally, the nursery rhyme, Baa,Baa Black sheep, is seen as a complaint of the oppressed common people, the “little boy who lives in the lane,” against the King, “my master” who took their wool and against the oppressively wealthy nobility, “my dame”.

The most obvious historical incidence of unrest among those oppressed by the Master and the Dame who collect all the wool dates back to 1275 when Edward I imposed an export tax that allowed him to collect a tax on any wool exported from any port in the country.

Additional History for the Rhyme :

The nursery rhyme, Baa,Baa,Black Sheep, is over two-hundred years old. With the earliest known publication date in 1744.

In 1888, the famous author, Rudyard Kipling, used the nursery rhyme as the basis for a short story aptly title “Baa,Baa,Black Sheep.”

When the rhyme was included in Mother Goose’s Melody; the editor added the following moral which said “Bad habits are easier conquered today than tomorrow.” One wonders what bad habits have to do with the sheep and the recipients of his wool. Perhaps, the moral would have had more impact if it read “Baaaahd habits.”

Why is the Sheep Black ?

Research did not turn up any information regarding why the poor sheep is black. However, it seems doubtful that black wool would be as desirable as white wool, which can be dyed to any color.

Perhaps, it simply indicates the subservient position of the serf (the black sheep) of whom the question was asked.

It also recalls the proverbial black sheep that every family has which would seem to indicate that the black sheep would not be the most trustworthy person to question.

Linguistics :

The term “Baa,Baa,Black Sheep” dialect has also been used informally in linguistics to describe varieties of English tha allow the syntax “Have you any wool?” compare to the alternative “Do you have any wool” with the auxiliary verb “do”. In the question “Have you any wool ?” the verb “have” appears as a transitive verb with the sense of that it undergoes syntactic inversion.

Sources :

Baring Gould, William S and Ceil. The Annotated Mother Goose. Bramhall House, 1962. Christensen, James C.

Rhyme and Reasons an Annotated Collectionof Mother Goose Rhymes. The Greenwhich Workshop Press, 1997.

Ragam Bahasa

Ragam bahasa merupakan variasi bahasa menurut pemakaian, yang berbeda-beda menurut topik yang dibicarakan, menurut hubungan pembicara, kawan bicara, orang yang dibicarakan, serta menurut medium pembicara (Bachman, 1990). Ragam bahasa dalam bahasa Indonesia berjumlah sangat. Maka itu, ia dibagi atas dasar pokok pembicaraan, perantara pembicaraan, dan hubungan antarpembicara.

Dari sekian banyak ragam bahasa, ada beberapa faktor yang menyebabkan timbulnya keragaman bahasa. diantaranya :

Faktor Budaya atau letak Geografis
Faktor Ilmu pengetahuan
Faktor Sejarah

Berikut ini sebagian dari macam-macam ragam bahasa :

Ragam bahasa menurut topik atau pokok pembicaraan meliputi:

ragam undang-undang
ragam jurnalistik
ragam ilmiah
ragam sastra

Ragam bahasa menurut media / sarana dibagi atas:

Ragam lisan, adalah bahasa yang terucap langsung yang diujarkan oleh pemakai bahasa. terdiri dari:

ragam percakapan
ragam pidato
ragam kuliah
ragam panggung

Ciri-ciri ragam bahasa lisan

Adanya lawan bicara
Terikat waktu dan ruang
Dapat dibantu dengan mimik muka/wajah, intonasi, dan gerakan anggota tubuh
Unsur-unsur dramatika biasanya dinyatakan dihilangkan atau tidak lengkap

Lantas apa yang dimaksud dengan Ragam tulis ? …

Ragam tulis, adalah bahasa yang ditulis atau yang tercetak dengan huruf sebagai dasarnya. terdiri dari:

ragam teknis
ragam undang-undang
catatan
surat-menyurat

Ciri-ciri ragam bahasa tulis :

Tidak mengharuskan kedatangan/kehadiran pembaca
Diperlukan ejaan atau tanda baca Kalimat ditulis secara lengkap
komunikasi resmi
wacana teknis
pembicaraan di depan khalayak ramai
pembicaraan dengan orang yang dihormati

Macam-Macam dan Jenis-Jenis Ragam / Keragaman Bahasa :
1. Ragam bahasa pada bidang tertentu seperti bahasa istilah hukum, bahasa sains, bahasa jurnalistik, dsb.
2. Ragam bahasa pada perorangan atau idiolek seperti gaya bahasa mantan presiden Soeharto, gaya bahasa benyamin s, dan lain sebagainya.
3. Ragam bahasa pada kelompok anggota masyarakat suatu wilayah atau dialek seperti dialek bahasa madura, dialek bahasa medan, dialek bahasa sunda, dialek bahasa bali, dialek bahasa jawa, dan lain sebagainya.
4. Ragam bahasa pada kelompok anggota masyarakat suatu golongan sosial seperti ragam bahasa orang akademisi beda dengan ragam bahasa orang-orang jalanan.
5. Ragam bahasa pada bentuk bahasa seperti bahasa lisan dan bahasa tulisan.
6. Ragam bahasa pada suatu situasi seperti ragam bahasa formal (baku) dan informal (tidak baku).
Bahasa lisan lebih ekspresif di mana mimik, intonasi, dan gerakan tubuh dapat bercampur menjadi satu untuk mendukung komunikasi yang dilakukan. Lidah setajam pisau / silet oleh karena itu sebaiknya dalam berkata-kata sebaiknya tidak sembarangan dan menghargai serta menghormati lawan bicara / target komunikasi.
Bahasa isyarat atau gesture atau bahasa tubuh adalah salah satu cara bekomunikasi melalui gerakan-gerakan tubuh. Bahasa isyarat akan lebih digunakan permanen oleh penyandang cacat bisu tuli karena mereka memiliki bahasa sendiri. Bahasa isyarat akan dibahas pada artikel lain di situs organisasi.org ini. Selamat membaca.

ragam regional/dialek
varian yang disebabkan perbedaan daerah.
ragam pribadi/idialek
varian bahasa yang disebabkan kebiasaan/cara bahasa yang kahas pada seseorang.
ragam sosial/sosialek
varan bahasa yang disebabkan perbedaan kelompok sosial tertentu dalam masyarakat .
ragam temporal
varian bahasa yang dipakai dalam kurun waktu tertentu.

Definitions of Language

1. Language, a way to communicate ideas comprehensibly from one person to another in such a way that the other will be able to act exactly accordingly. The transportation of such ideas could be acquired by either verbal expression, signing in alphabet (written word) and perhaps if we can imagine two parties with different tongue, signing with gestures and images. [SignGenius.com]

2. A system of communication that enables humans to cooperate.

This definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it to express themselves and to manipulate objects in their environment.

3. Definition from The American Heritage Dictionary of The English Language [Answer.com]

· Communication of thoughts and feelings through a system of arbitrary signals, such as voice sounds, gestures, or written symbols.

· Such a system including its rules for combining its components, such as words.

· Such a system used by nation, people, or other distinct community; often contrasted with dialect.

· A system of signs, symbols, gestures, or rules used in communicating; the language of algebra.

4. Language, the spesifically human capasity for acquiring and using complex system of communication, or to a spesific instance of such a system of complex communication. [Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia]

5. Noam Chomsky, define language as a particular set of sentences that can be generated from a particular set of rules.

6. Language, a system of objects or symbols, such as sounds or character sequences, that can be combined in various ways following a set of rules, especially to communicate thoughts, feelings, or instructions.

7. Language, the set of patterns or structures produced by such a system.

8. Languages, the particular set of speech norms of a particular community, are also a part of the larger culture of the community that speak them. Humans use language as a way of signalling identity with one cultural group and difference from others.

10. Language, system of conventional spoken or written symbols used by people in a shared culture to communicate with each other, [Britannica Concise Encyclopedia]

11. Language means of conveying or communicating ideas; spesifically, human speech; the expression of ideas by the voice; sounds, expressive of thought, articulated by the organs of the throat and mouth. [The Collaborative International Dictionary of English]

12. Language, a human system of communication that uses arbitrary signals, such as voice sounds, gestures, or written symbols. [About.com: Grammar and Composition]

13. Ferdinand de Saussure argues that language is a structured system of arbitray signs. On the other hand, symbols are not arbitrary. A symbol may be a signifier, but in contrast to a sign, a symbol is never completely arbitrary. A symbol has a rational relationship with what is signified.

From those definitions, i’ll explain one of them,:

“Language is any means of conveying or communicating ideas; specifically, human speech; the expression of ideas by the voice; sounds, expressive of thought, articulated by the organs of the throat and mouth.” [The Collaborative International Dictionary of English]

· Communicating ideas : to share information with others by speaking, writing, moving your body or using other signals of our ideas.

· Specifically : for a particular reason, purpose, etc.

· Human speech: humans use language as a way of signaling identity with one cultural group and difference with others.example : when the Javanese people met each other in the morning they give greeting with :” sugeng enjang”. Instead Indonesian said : “ selamat pagi”. And in English is : “ Good Morning”.

· The expression ideas by voice, sounds, expressive of thought : humans use the voice, sounds, to deliver what they are thinking about that is packed in ‘language’.

· Articulated by the organs of the throat and mouth: humans use the organs of the throat and mouth as the way to deliver the sound so that can produce language.